Arte
Tibetana
A arte
Tibetana só pode ser compreendida no contexto de suas
origens sagradas. O antigo rei Srong Tsen Gampo unificou o
até então país não-budista que
nós conhecemos hoje como o Tibet no século VII,
estabelecendo um grande império, cujo domínio
se estendia do Afeganistão ao Sião. King Song
teve esposas das cortes de seus vizinhos mais próximos,
os reinos budistas da China e Nepal.
São
os trabalhos de arte que estas princesas trouxeram com elas
para o Tibet que formaram as sementes das origens da arte
tibetana. A princesa chinesa Wen Ju trouxe um par de antigas
estátuas de sândalo em tamanho natural do Buda
Shakyamuni que dizem que foram feitas como portraits durante
a vida de Shakyamuni.
A peça de
arte mais venerada e importante, o Jowo Rinpoche agora guardado
como relíquia no templo de Jokhang em Lhasa, é
uma das peças.

Jowo Rinpoche,
Jokhang, Lhasa
Esta estátua
foi o objeto que mais atraía as pessoas em peregrinação.
Por séculos, centenas de milhares de peregrinos tibetanos
percorreram milhares de quilômetros para venerar estas
imagens ou se prostrar diante delas. A segunda mais importante
imagem no Tibet é a imagem em sândalo de Avalokiteshvara,
o bodhisattva patrono da Terra das Neves.
Muito
pouco da arte e artefatos deste período inicial do
budismo permanece. Por volta do século IX o déspota
Langdarma assassinou seu irmão mais velho, o rei budista
Rapalchen e usurpou o trono em uma campanha anti-budista.
O budismo e suas formas de expressão artísticas
foram violentamente expurgados. Depois de um breve e destrutivo
reinado ele foi assassinado pelo monge budista Lha Lung Pelgyi
Dorje. Então o Império Tibetano se degenerou
em estados feudais, fragmentado e com muitas guerras. Uma
era negra tomou conta por 150 anos. Foi aí que em um
pequeno reinado a oeste do Tibet , sob a realeza de Yeshe
, o budismo com suas formas de arquitetura, escultura, e pinturas
foram totalmente reavivados. O rei Yeshe enviou 21 monges,
em 950 A.D., para estudar nos colégios monásticos
da Índia com o objetivo de, ao regressarem, estabelecer
centros de aprendizagem budista. O clima tropical matou todos,
a não ser dois monges; um, Rinchen Zangpo
(980-1055),
monge e tradutor, completou seus estudos e retornou com uma
grande quantidade de textos religiosos e trinta e dois artesões.
Viveu mais de cem anos e estabeleceu pelo menos 21 templos
e centros de tradução no Tibet Ocidental.

Mahakala
(protector) - Panjaranata - Retinue Figure; 1800 - 1899
Tibet;
Buddhist Lineage; 40.60cm (15.98in) high
Clay;
Collection of The British Museum
(1948.7-16.24,
H.G. Beasley Bequest)

Chakrasamvara;
1700 - 1799; China
Buddhist
Lineage; 24.13cm (9.50in) high
Metal;
Collection of The British Museum
(1939.1-18.1,
Gift of Miss Humphreys in memory of Edward Humphreys)

Avalokiteshvara
- Khasarpani; 1500 - 1599
Western
Tibet; 19.05cm (7.50in) high
Copper;
Collection of Asia Society
(acc.
# 1994.004, Gift from The Blanchette Hooker Rockefeller Fund)
Algumas
pinturas destes mosteiros encontram-se preservadas em templos
no Himalaia, e refletem a prosperidade da arte indiana, em
particular de Kashmir, antes de desvanecer por completo sob
as agressivas invasões mulçumanas (nenhuma pintura
em tecido desta época permance na Índia).

Tara
- White; 1600 - 1699; Tibet
17.15cm
(6.75in) high; Silver, Precious Stone
Collection
of Asia Society
(acc.
#1979.052, Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection
of Asian Art)

Avalokiteshvara
- Padmapani (Lotus Holder)
(item no. 87411)
Buddhist Lineage
Ivory;
Collection of Victoria and Albert Museum

Vaishravana
(protector) - Riding a Lion; Tibet
Buddhist
Lineage; Wood
Collection
of Nicholas Roerich Museum


Hevajra
- Combined Families (Vajrapanjara Tantra)
Tibet
1400
- 1499; Sakya Lineage; Ground Mineral Pigment, Fine Gold Line
on Cotton
Collection
of Rubin Museum of Art
Muitas
pinturas tibetanas são usadas como suporte para as
práticas meditativas. Elas representam iconograficamente
a filosofia budista, o caminho do despertar e a meta da iluminação.
As imagens, proporções e simbolismo são
derivados de antigos textos budistas. Tradicionalmente, as
pinturas são executadas sobre telas de algodão
e montadas sobre brocados de seda. As tintas são feitas
com pigmentos minerais e vegetais, e às vezes com ouro
e prata. Os pintores tibetanos também se especializaram
em pinturas com um número de cores reduzido —
pinturas prateadas, douradas, vermelhas e negras são
muito comuns.

Arhat
- 16 Elders: Chudapantaka; Eastern Tibet
1400
- 1499; Uncertain Lineage; 99.06x57.15cm (39x22.50in)
Ground
Mineral Pigment, Fine Gold Line on Cotton
Collection
of Rubin Museum of Art
O principal
estilo que conhecemos hoje, o Menri, surgiu apenas no século
XV, combinando a iconografia da Índia, as ilustrações
e simetria do Nepal, e as paisagens e cores da China. Os artistas
tibetanos representam buddhas, bodhisattvas, divindades meditacionais
pacíficas e iradas, lamas e diagramas sagrados. Cada
divindade é representada de acordo com as proporções
tradicionais e com as descrições de liturgias
tântricas (sânsc. sadhana, tib. sgrub thabs/ drubthab).
Como objetos sagrados, essas pinturas são consideradas
como o receptáculo das próprias divindades que
são representadas — são chamadas de kusün
thugten, suporte aos três corpos ou simplesmente de
kuten (tib. sku rten), suporte ao corpo [búddhico].
O primeiro
passo na execução de uma thangka(pintura) é
preparar a tela de algodão e colocá-la em uma
estrutura retangular, feita com varas de bambu e de madeira.
Após definir o tamanho da pintura, são desenhados
os eixos principais e o rascunho das imagens. Finalmente,
realiza-se a aplicação das cores, sombras, contornos
e detalhes, começando pela paisagem e então
as divindades, deixando os olhos por último. Dependendo
do tamanho e da complexidade da pintura, o processo pode demorar
de um a quatro meses para ser completado.

Tibetan
Thangka Paintings

Manuscript
Pages - Illuminated Pages; Buddhist Lineage
11.50cm
(4.53in) high
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel

Teacher
(Lama)
1800 - 1899
Nyingma
Lineage; 39.05x23.50cm (15.38x9.25in)
Ground
Mineral Pigment on Cotton
Collection
of Rubin Museum of Art

Avalokiteshvara - (11 faces,
8 hands)
Central Tibet
1600 - 1699; Uncertain Lineage;
68.58x44.45cm (27x17.50in)
Fine Gold Line, Red Background
on Cotton; Collection of Rubin Museum of Art

Mahakala
(protector) - Shadbhuja (Six-hands); Tibet; 1800 - 1899
73x46cm
(28.74x18.11in)
Ground
Mineral Pigment on Cotton
Collection
of Private

Yamari,
Krishna - Heruka (Eight Pronouncements); Tibet
1800
- 1899; Nyingma Lineage
39.50x30.50cm
(15.55x12.01in); Ground Mineral Pigment on Cotton
Collection
of Private

Vajrayogini
- (Naropa Tradition); Tibet
1600
- 1699; Sakya Lineage
72.50x53cm
(28.54x20.87in);Ground Mineral Pigment on Cotton
Collection
of Private
Após
a finalização, a pintura é montada sobre
brocados de seda e consagrada com cerimônias especiais.
Geralmente, são nestas cerimônias que os olhos
das divindades são pintados, para que elas se tornem
realmente "vivas".

Ritual
Object - Conch Shell; 1700 - 1799
Himalayan
Region; Buddhist Lineage; 44cm (17.32in) high
Other,
Silver Inlay; Collection of The British Museum
(1992.12-14.16,
Schmitt-Meade Collection)
Stupa;
Gandhara (ancient)
Buddhist
Lineage; Black Stone
Collection
of Victoria and Albert Museum

Direction
Guardian - Dhritarashtra (east); 1600 - 1699
Tibet;
Buddhist Lineage
18cm
(7.09in) high; Wood
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel

Ritual
Object - Vajra and Bell; 1400 - 1499
Eastern
Tibet; Buddhist Lineage
Bronze
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel

Teacher
(Lama) - Kunpang Chatral Choje; 1500 - 1599
Tibet;
Kagyu Lineage
28cm
(11.02in) high; Bronze
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel
Chart
- Astrological; Tibet; 1800 - 1899
Gelug
Lineage; 45x60.50cm (17.72x23.82in)
Ground
Mineral Pigment on Cotton
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel


Miscellaneous
- Landscape; Central Tibet
1600
- 1699; Uncertain Lineage; 243.84x152.40cm (96x60in)
Ground
Mineral Pigment on Cotton
Collection
of Shelley & Donald Rubin

Ritual
Object - Offering Item; Tibet
Buddhist
Lineage; 27cm (10.63in) high; Silver
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel

Ritual
Object - Vase, Water Flask; Tibet
Buddhist
Lineage; 26cm (10.24in) high; Metal
Collection
of Museum der Kulturen, Basel

Buddha
Shakyamuni; 200 - 299
Gandhara
(ancient); Stone
Collection
of Asia Society
(acc.
#1979.002, Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection
of Asian Art)
Em uma sangrenta campanha ocorreram violentas limpezas das
antigüidades budistas durante a Revolução
Cultural Chinesa nos anos 60 e 70 (quando 6000 mosteiros e
seus artefatos artísticos foram destruídos).
Muitas
obras de arte tibetanas encontram-se no Ocidente, vendidas
a museus ou a colecionadores particulares, expostas ou armazenadas
em depósitos longe do alcance de estudiosos.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The
Development and Symbolism of
Tibetan Buddhist Art and Iconography
by Peter Della Santina
The
seventh century A. D. is considered as a landmark in the history
of Buddhism in Tibet. Through the introduction of Buddhism
into the land it witnessed a social and cultural advance.
From the seventh century onwards while extensive literary
activity in terms of translation from Sanskrit to Tibetan
and composition of Tibetan literature was in progress, a corresponding
development in art also took place. Many beautiful monasteries
and temples decorated with frescos and paintings, cast images
and ritual objects, were set up.

Chakrasamvara
Tibet
in those days was open to foreign influences. It had continuous
contact with India, Nepal, China and the countries of Central
Asia, and hence was well disposed to receive all forms of
art and culture.
Hence,
there can be no doubt that the first artists who painted frescos
and modelled the figures of gods and goddesses of the Tibetan
Buddhist pantheon, were not Tibetan, but Indians, Nepalese
and Chinese. This is indicated by the account given of the
construction of the monastery bSam-yas according to which
the lower part was done in the Tibetan manner, the middle
with a Chinese roof and the upper part with an Indian roof.
The same tradition also claims that a castle built south-east
of bSam-yas had nine turrets and three floors: the ground
floor, Tibetan; the two-roofed first floor was built in the
style of Khotan, the second in Chinese style and the third
in the Indian style.[1]
Foremost
among this influx of artistic culture from abroad was the
importation of art forms and styles from India. From the seventh
century onwards for several hundred years, cultural relations
between India and Tibet were at their peak. It was during
these centuries that countless Buddhist monks and their associates,
including artists and craftsmen, must have gone to Tibet and
Nepal carrying manuscripts, paintings and small portable icons
in metal and stone. These images and paintings probably served
to illustrate the preaching of the Dharma and they constituted
the most important examples of Buddhist iconography. Moreover,
the images and the illustrative materials served as models
and inspiration for the artistic development in the country.
On the other hand, many enthusiastic Tibetan monks undertook
strenuous journeys to India in search of knowledge in the
field of religion as well as in other secular subjects like
medicine, logic, grammar, astrology, and art. In the course
of time, they mastered Buddhist art, went back to their homeland
to apply their newly acquired knowledge in the field of art.
The
Indian styles which had a profound influence upon the early
development of Tibetan Buddhist art, were notably those of
Gandhara, Kashmir and Bengal. The styles of Gandhara and Kashmir
distinguished by Hellenistic motifs such as the Corinthian
type of pillar capital, the frequent occurrence of the Midas
theme and the use of elaborate floral and other motifs for
filling up empty spaces in murals and frescos found ready
acceptance in the school of Gu-ge centred in the west of Tibet.
Concrete evidence of the movement of these stylistic elements
from Kashmir to Tibet is provided by the murals at Alchi in
Ladakh which are said to have been executed by artists who
accompanied the translator Rin-chen-bzan-po on his return
to Tibet from Kashmir.[2]
The
Pala style of Bengal characterised by the lightness of figures
and delicacy of treatment found its way to Tibet via Nepal.
These stylistic elements along with the richly ornamented
thrones and halos characteristic of Nepalese art are common
in the Beri school which became prominent in southern Tibet.
In
the development of Tibetan art, Nepal played a significant
role. Nepal acted as a meeting place between India on the
one hand and Tibet and China on the other. Nepal, by accepting
the art and iconography of Indian Buddhism together with its
theory and technique, rendered a great service to the growth
of Tibetan Buddhist art. The matrimonial alliance between
Tibet and Nepal concluded in the seventh century brought these
two countries into close contact. The Nepalese princess is
said to have brought to Tibet the images of Aksobhya, Maitreya
and Tara.[3]
The
images and paintings of Nepal definitely served as a source
of inspiration which developed the conception of aesthetic
beauty in the minds of the Tibetans.
The
art of Nepal continued to play a role in Tibet even much later
through the activities of skilled Nepalese artists. At the
instance of Kublai Khan, a wonderful artist from Nepal skilled
in both stone and metallic executions, named Aniko, with his
eighty companions, were invited by the abbot of Sakya, Chos-gyal
Phags-pa, to erect a golden stupa in Tibet.4 It is said that
Aniko with his assistants decorated the monasteries of Tibet
and China. The style of Aniko became the guideline for the
Imperial Chinese art. The Nepalese influence can be traced
in those Tibetan Buddhist icons and paintings in which we
notice an increasing hieratic stylization of forms. The figures
become more and more loaded with a profusion of jewellery
and ornamentation. The Pala art of Bengal continued to develop
in Nepal which in its turn contributed its stylized version
to the development of Tibetan Buddhist art.
Beside
this Indo-Nepalese influence from the South, Tibet was also
in touch with the countries of Central Asia including Chinese
Turkistan. The destruction of Buddhist communities in Central
Asia by the Muslims forced Buddhist monks to take shelter
in the monasteries of Tibet. The various protectors of the
Dharma with their warlike following all clad in armour and
typical Central Asian attire in Tibetan Buddhist art can be
considered an importation from the North.
The
first influence of Chinese art from the Tang period became
evident as the result of the friendly - relations with China
sealed by the wedding of Sron-btsan-sgam-po with the Chinese
princess.
When the foundations of Tibetan Buddhist art were being created,
certain influences were left by the temporary Tibetan rule
in the ninth century over Chinese Turkistan and the oasis
of Tunhuang in Kansu province famous for its rock temples.
Again, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Chinese
art exercised a considerable influence over Tibetan art causing
sudden changes in the old traditions mainly in painting and
architecture. New monasteries were founded and old ones renovated.[5]
The
Chinese element in Tibetan art can be seen in the openness
of backgrounds, the use of landscapes and the figures of animals
and the diagonal action of the figures as well as in the use
of delicate pastels.
The
primary symbols which are to be found in Tibetan Buddhist
Tantric iconography range from those of universal and archetypal
character to those which may be referred to a limited cultural
context. Among the former we may count such symbols as the
union of male and female so prevalent in Tantric iconography
and the image of the tree of enlightenment. These symbols
are clearly not restricted to any particular culture and have
appeared many times in a variety of religious and literary
contexts.

In
addition, there are numerous symbols which are drawn from
the Indian mythological heritage and which are adopted and
modified to express Tantric concepts. Among these, perhaps
the most notable are the Vajra and the Padma.
The Vajra,
initially well-known as the sceptre of Indra, expressed his
mastery over the world. It came to assume tremendous importance
in Tantric philosophy and symbolism. While the original symbolic
significance remained relevant, because the Vajra wielded
by Buddhist Tantric dieties may be taken as expressing their
mastery over the world of existence, the Vajra came to symbolize
a great deal more in Buddhist iconography. It seems the primary
significance of the Vajra in Buddhist Tantric thought is as
a symbol of the indestructible nature of the ultimate truth.
In this sense, the term Vajra is often explained as synonymous
with emptiness (sunyata) which is indestructible. [6] The
Vajra is said to be superior to all things in that while it
is capable of destroying anything with which it comes into
contact, it, like a diamond, remains unaffected. It may well
be that this explanation of the significance of the term Vajra
led to the employment of the term Vajrayana as designation
of Tantric Buddhism in general. The connection may become
clearer if it is recalled that through Tantric methodology
situations and emotions normally injurious to spiritual progress
can be appropriated and turned to a religious purpose without
in any way adversely affecting the Tantric practitioner. Again,
in other contexts such as when it is found in association
with the Vajraghanta as in the case of Vajra-sattva, the Vajra
represents skilful means, the active component of the ultimate
attainment of Buddhahood, while the Vajra-ghanta or bell represents
wisdom.

While
the significance of the Vajra underwent extensive development
and modification within the Buddhist Tantric tradition, the
significance of the Padma or lotus seems to have remained
largely unaltered. The symbol of the Padma commonly found
in Indian spiritual iconography as representing the transformation
from an impure condition to a pure one which is the goal of
spiritual discipline, retained by and large the same significance
in Buddhist Tantric iconography. The Padma which is born in
the mud nonetheless rises above it and unfolds the flower
of spiritual excellence. The fact that nearly all Buddhist
Tantric deities of any consequence are pictured seated upon
lotus thrones indicates the purified condition of their being.

Another
symbol which is often met with in both Mahayana and Tantric
iconography is that of the sword or Vajra knife. The sword
is best known in Mahayana iconography as the weapon of the
Bodhisattva Manjusri. This Bodhisattva is usually pictured
holding the sword in the right hand and a holy text in the
left. The sword is a symbol of the wisdom of discrimination
which cuts through the net of erroneous views and ignorance
while the text of the Perfection of Wisdom represents the
purified knowledge which replaces the mistaken notions of
the ego and the like which are responsible for the presence
of suffering.

The Vajra
knife which is characteristic of Tantric iconography possesses
essentially the same significance as the sword. Such curved
knives are found wielded by large numbers of Tantric deities,
both major and minor. Vajrayogini holds such a knife as does
Mahakala in some representations.

Moreover,
the many ornaments which adorn the figures of Tantric deities
have a wide range of significance, both general and specific.
Professor Tucci has discussed exhaustively the role played
by the symbolism of royalty in Tantric iconography as represented
by the conception of the celestial mansion and certain specific
ornaments such as the crown which adorn the head of Ratnasambhava.
[7] The bone ornaments which are very striking features of
Tantric iconography as well as the garments of animal skins
and the like can be said to parallel the costumes of demons
of Indian mythology. Their assumption by the deities of the
Buddhist Tantric pantheon represents the defeat of the demonic
forces by the Tantric deities. Further, the symbolism of demonic
costumes serves to reinforce the Tantric conception that obstacles
and passions may be transformed and so used for spiritual
ends.

This is
not to say, however, that the complicated adornments which
decorate the figures of Tantric deities have only a general
and amorphous significance. They also admit of specific interpretations,
as expressing elements of Buddhist and Tantric philosophy.
While skull cups and ornaments of bone obviously express the
consciousness of impermanence which is so fundamental to Buddhist
thought, they have more specific references as well. For instance,
the crowns of five skulls which adorn the heads of a large
number of Tantric deities are explained in commentaries as
representing the five transcendent wisdoms [8] associated
with the five Dhyani Buddhas. Again, the six ornaments of
bone, i.e.the skull-tiara, the armlets, the bracelets, the
anklets, the bone-bead apronand waist-band combined with the
double line of bone beads extending over the shoulders onto
the breast which adorn important Tantric deities are explained
as representations of the six perfections: generosity, morality,
patience, energy, concentration, and wisdom.

In a survey
of the symbols of Tantric iconography, one cannot overlook
the significance of the colours employed in thankas and murals.
Five primary colours are associated with the five Buddhas
of the basic mandala. Thus, they represent symbolically the
quality associated with each of the five Buddhas. For example,
the Ratna family of Ratnasambhava is associated with the element
of earth and the defilement of pride. The defilement of pride
in its purified aspect takes the form of transcendental wisdom
of equality. The colour of this family is yellow, the colour
of earth. Yellow functions as a symbol of putrescent pride
while alternatively it symbolizes the richness of gold which
expresses the all-embracing equanimity of transcendental wisdom.
The Padma
family of Amitabha is associated with the defilement of passion
and the element of fire. In its impure state passion seeks
to consume like fire everything with which it comes into contact.
In its purified state, it is the transcendental wisdom of
discrimination which appreciates and apprehends precisely
all situations with compassion. The colour associated with
this family is red. The brillance and heat of red symbolizes
passion which excludes everything in its fascination with
the object of desire. Alternatively, the vividness and the
brilliance of red symbolizes the all-embracing compassion
of the transcendental wisdom of discrimination.
In addition,
we find that many of the Tantric deities are black in colour.
Black symbolizes immutability, i.e. the quality of remaining
unaffected and impervious to any external influences. Thus
black symbolizes the inconquerable and secure nature of the
accomplished state.
The mounts
or asanas upon which the Tantric deities are pictured also
have important philosophical significance. Thus it is that
the corpse upon which Mahakala stands in some representations
is said to symbolize the ego and the triumph of the deity
over it. Yamantaka, the wrathful emanation of Manjusri tramples
upon the head of Yama which expresses his triumph over death.
Again, Vajrakila is depicted trampling upon Siva and Uma who
in this case symbolizes his triumph over the extremes of eternalism
and nihilism.

The objects
which the various Tantric deities hold in their hands also
have specific significance. Vajrayogini, for instance, holds
in her right hand a vajra knife which symbolizes the cutting
off of naive ignorance. In her left hand, she holds a skull
cup filled with blood from which she drinks. This symbolizes
her consumption of the defilements which give rise to suffering.
Thus the
detailed description of the Tantric deities including colour,
ornaments, hand objects and mount found in the appropriate
texts and represented in paintings and images is capable of
individual and specific interpretation of all its elements.
Therefore, it is evident that the intricate symbolism of Buddhist
Tantric iconography includes a wide variety of symbols drawn
from a number of sources. The interpretations of the significance
of Tantric symbolism is all the more difficult, because the
symbols may be interpreted on a variety of levels which makes
it impossible to fix upon any one interpretation as exclusively
correct. Nonetheless, far from being a haphazard conglomeration
of horrific forms and macabre paraphernalia, Tantric iconography
is a carefully constructed system of psychological symbolism
calculated to express succinctly and pictorially the whole
of Buddhist religion and Tantric philosophy. It functions
as skilful means by which the Tantric adept is assisted in
his appropriation and realization of the divine vision. Thus,
Tantric iconography is an integral part of the process of
liberation and enlightenment.
NOTES
1. Steine, R. A., Tibetan Civilization, London, 1972, p. 283.
[back]
2. Gu-ge-Khri-tan ye-ses-dpal, Collected Biographical Material
About Lo-chen-Rin-chen-bzari-po and his Subsequent Reembodiments,
pp. 51 - 128. [back]
3. Obermiller, E., History of Buddhism, Heidelberg 1931, p.
184 and Chattopadhyaya, A., Atisa and Tibet, Calcutta, India,
1967, p. 186. [back]
4. Ray, A., Art of Nepal, New Delhi, India, 1973. p.9. [back]
5. Jisl, Lumir, Tibetan Art, p. 12. [back]
6. Bhattacharyya, B., An Introduction -to Indian Buddhist
Iconography, Calcutta, India, 1968, Introduction. [back]
7. Tucci, G., Theory and Practice of the Mandala, Roma, 1949,
pp. 44 - 45. [back]
8. Ibid., p. 70. [back]
-----by
the Same Author1)
The Vajrayana: Myth and Symbolism
2) The Tree of Enlightenment: An Introduction to the Major
Traditions of Buddhism
Fontes:
Shelley and Donald Rubin Foundation; Peter
Della Santina; Museum der Kulturen, Asia Society, Dharmanet,
Tibart, Victoria and Albert Museum, The British Museum, Rubin
Museum of Art, Nicholas Roerich Museum e Museu
de Arte Tibetana
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